Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

WHO content (UN agency, public-domain fact sheet, attribution required)

Question: Per the WHO fact sheet on Causes, what is the summary?

Answer:
Several processes can cause the airways to become narrow and lead to COPD. There may be destruction of parts of the lung, mucus blocking the airways, and inflammation and swelling of the airway lining.

COPD develops gradually over time, often resulting from a combination of risk factors:

tobacco exposure from active smoking or passive exposure to second-hand smoke; occupational exposure to dusts, fumes or chemicals; indoor air pollution: biomass fuel (wood, animal dung, crop residue) or coal is frequently used for cooking and heating in low- and middle-income countries with high levels of smoke exposure; early life events such as poor growth in utero, prematurity, and frequent or severe respiratory infections in childhood that prevent maximum lung growth; asthma in childhood; and a rare genetic condition called alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, which can cause COPD at a young age.

COPD should be suspected if a person has typical symptoms, and the diagnosis confirmed by a breathing test called spirometry, which measures how the lungs are working. In low- and middle-income countries, spirometry is often not available and so the diagnosis may be missed.

— Source: www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-(copd)
  Publisher: World Health Organization (WHO)
  Page: "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)"
  Section: "Causes"
  License: WHO content (UN agency, public-domain fact sheet, attribution required)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults (LADA)

Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: According to Diabetes UK, on the topic of "what are the symptoms of lada"

Answer:
The symptoms of LADA are the same as type 1 and type 2 diabetes:

passing urine a lot feeling very thirsty getting really tired getting thinner.

But they generally come on much slower than they do with type 1, over months rather than weeks. And the symptoms are more obvious and often come on more quickly than you’d expect with type 2.

And whereas being overweight is a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes , people with LADA tend to have a healthy weight.

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/other-types-of-diabetes/latent-autoimmune-diabetes
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults (LADA)"
  Section: "What are the symptoms of LADA?"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes Australia, open patient education

Question: According to Diabetes Australia, on the topic of "also do bgl checks"

Answer:
Before driving any vehicle – you need to be above 5.0mmol/L to drive When you experience a hypo Before and after any physical activity (eg, walking, gardening, exercise) If you become unwell Whenever you are concerned about your diabetes.

Structured self-monitoring involves checking your blood glucose levels at certain times of the day (for instance after meals) for a given period (i.e. two weeks) and then working with your diabetes healthcare team to figure out how food, physical activity and medications are impacting your blood glucose levels. If you would like to try structured self-monitoring we have prepared this helpful guide .

— Source: www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/managing-diabetes/blood-glucose-monitoring/
  Publisher: Diabetes Australia
  Page: "Diabetes Australia"
  Section: "Also do BGL checks:"
  License: Diabetes Australia, open patient education
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: What does Healthdirect Australia say about What will increase my risk of having a stroke? Cite the source.

Answer:
A TIA is a medical emergency. Call triple zero (000) and ask for an ambulance if you have symptoms of a stroke or TIA, even if the symptoms go away and you feel better.

You may be at a higher risk of having a stroke if you have had a transient ischaemic attack (TIA). A TIA is a temporary blockage of the blood supply to your brain. It causes symptoms that are similar to stroke. They often last a few minutes. You get better within 24 hours.

Risk factors for stroke that you can control include:

smoking cigarettes living with high blood pressure , diabetes and high cholesterol levels drinking alcohol being inactive eating an unhealthy diet living with atrial fibrillation

Risk factors for stroke that you cannot control are:

your age — the older you are, the greater your risk your sex — males are at a greater risk than females having a family history of stroke or some genetic disorders

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/stroke
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "What will increase my risk of having a stroke?"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

What should I do if I run out of insulin?

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: Per Healthdirect Australia guidance on What should I do if I run out of insulin, what is the summary?

Answer:
It is a good idea to always keep at least one spare vial of insulin for emergencies. Remember to take your insulin with you when you go out.

If you run out of insulin:

contact your doctor or diabetes educator for advice ask your pharmacist if they can give you an emergency supply (they may charge for this service)

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/insulin-and-diabetes
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "What should I do if I run out of insulin?"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: According to Healthdirect Australia, on the topic of "surgical procedures"

Answer:
Treatments that can restore blood flow to your heart include the following:

Angioplasty — a small balloon is inserted into the blocked artery and inflated to open it. A stent (a tiny mesh tube) may be left in the artery to keep it open. Coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) — this involves taking a healthy blood vessel from somewhere else in your body and attaching it to the blocked artery on each side of the blockage. This lets blood flow around the blockage.

After the heart attack is treated, ongoing treatment focuses on recovery and prevention of further heart attacks.

Cardiac rehabilitation is a program of education and exercise. It provides support during your recovery and helps lower your risk of having another heart attack. It will help you make lifestyle changes (such as starting a healthy diet , quitting smoking and managing stress ) to help prevent another heart attack.

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/heart-attack
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "Surgical procedures"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: How does Diabetes UK describe Signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis diabetes? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Most cases of cystic fibrosis diabetes are diagnosed before symptoms begin to develop. That is why having diabetes screening as part of your ongoing cystic fibrosis care is so important.

Symptoms of cystic fibrosis diabetes may include:

getting chest infections more often weight loss feeling really thirsty going to the toilet a lot feeling more tired than usual.

If you begin to experience any of these symptoms, it’s important that you contact your healthcare team straight away. Don’t wait for your next routine screening.

If left untreated, high blood sugar levels can lead to weight loss, frequent chest infections and a worsening lung function. They can also lead to diabetes complications , which can seriously affect parts of your body including your eyes, feet and heart.

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/other-types-of-diabetes/cystic-fibrosis-diabetes
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Cystic fibrosis diabetes"
  Section: "Signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis diabetes"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: How does Diabetes UK describe Cystic fibrosis diabetes? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Cystic fibrosis diabetes is the most common type of diabetes in people with cystic fibrosis. Although it has features of both type 1 and type 2, it is a different condition.

Find out more about cystic fibrosis diabetes

Monogenic diabetes is a rare condition, different from both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. It’s caused by a mutation in a single gene. If a parent has this mutation, their children have a 50 per cent chance of inheriting it. Since monogenic diabetes is so rare, people can often get misdiagnosed.

And in some cases of monogenic diabetes, the condition can be managed with specific tablets and doesn’t require insulin treatment. That’s why it’s incredibly important to understand rare forms of diabetes and diagnose them correctly.

(There are two types of monogenic diabetes - Neonatal and MODY ).

In April 2025, type 5 diabetes was officially recognised by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) as a type of diabetes related to malnutrition. Also known as malnutrition-related diabetes, it is distinct from both type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes, and is primarily caused by chronic undernutrition, especially during childhood or adolescence.

The IDF estimates that type 5 diabetes affects between 20-25 million people worldwide, primarily in Asia and Africa. Find out more about type 5 diabetes on the IDF website

Some people think diabetes inspidius is a type of diabetes because it has the word ‘diabetes’. But that’s not the case. It is completely different condition to diabetes (scentific name – diabetes mellitus).

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/types-of-diabetes
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Types of diabetes"
  Section: "Cystic fibrosis diabetes"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


WHO content (UN agency, public-domain fact sheet, attribution required)

Question: How does the WHO describe Benefits of physical activity and risks of sedentary behaviour and inactivity? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Physical inactivity is one of the leading risk factors for noncommunicable diseases mortality. People who are insufficiently active have a 20% to 30% increased risk of death compared to people who are sufficiently active. Regular physical activity is associated with:

in children and adolescents , improved physical fitness, cardiometabolic health, bone health, cognitive outcomes, mental health and reduced body fat; in adults and older adults , reduced risk of all-cause mortality, risk of cardiovascular disease mortality, incident hypertension, incident site-specific cancers, incident type-2 diabetes, and falls and improved mental health, cognitive health, sleep and measures of body fat; and for pregnant and post-partum women , decreased risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational hypertension, gestational diabetes, excessive gestational weight gain, delivery complications, postpartum depression and newborn complications. Physical activity has no adverse effects on birthweight or increased risk of stillbirth.

Sedentary behaviour is any period of low-energy expenditure while awake such as sitting, reclining or lying. Lives are becoming increasingly sedentary through the use of motorized transport and the increased use of screens for work, education and recreation. Evidence shows higher amounts of sedentary behaviour are associated with the following poor health outcomes:

in children and adolescents, increased adiposity, poorer cardiometabolic health, fitness, and behavioural conduct/pro-social behaviour, and reduced sleep duration; and in adults, increased all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease mortality and cancer mortality and incidence of cardiovascular disease, cancer and type-2 diabetes.

— Source: www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity
  Publisher: World Health Organization (WHO)
  Page: "Physical activity"
  Section: "Benefits of physical activity and risks of sedentary behaviour and inactivity"
  License: WHO content (UN agency, public-domain fact sheet, attribution required)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)

Hypertension in adults: diagnosis and management

NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: What is the NICE recommendation on Recommendations — 1.1 Measuring blood pressure? Quote the guideline.

Answer:
Ensure that healthcare professionals taking blood pressure measurements have adequate initial training and periodic review of their performance. [2004]

Because automated devices may not measure blood pressure accurately if there is pulse irregularity (for example, due to atrial fibrillation), palpate the radial or brachial pulse before measuring blood pressure. If pulse irregularity is present, measure blood pressure manually using direct auscultation over the brachial artery. [2011]

Healthcare providers must ensure that devices for measuring blood pressure are properly validated, maintained and regularly recalibrated according to manufacturers' instructions. See the British and Irish Hypertension Society's website for a list of validated blood pressure monitoring devices . [2004]

When measuring blood pressure in the clinic or in the home, standardise the environment and provide a relaxed, temperate setting, with the person quiet and seated, and their arm outstretched and supported. Use an appropriate cuff size for the person's arm. [2011, amended 2019]

In people with symptoms of postural hypotension, including falls or postural dizziness:

measure blood pressure with the person lying on their back (or consider a seated position, if it is inconvenient to measure blood pressure with the person lying down) measure blood pressure again after the person has been standing for at least 1 minute. [2004, amended 2023]

measure blood pressure with the person lying on their back (or consider a seated position, if it is inconvenient to measure blood pressure with the person lying down)

measure blood pressure again after the person has been standing for at least 1 minute. [2004, amended 2023]

If the person's systolic blood pressure falls by 20 mmHg or more, or their diastolic blood pressure falls by 10 mmHg or more, after the person has been standing for at least 1 minute:

consider likely causes, including reviewing their current medication manage appropriately (for example, for advice on preventing falls in older people, see NICE's guideline on falls in older people: assessing risk and prevention ) measure subsequent blood pressures with the person standing consider referral to specialist care if symptoms of postural hypotension persist despite addressing likely causes. [2004, amended 2023]

consider likely causes, including reviewing their current medication

manage appropriately (for example, for advice on preventing falls in older people, see NICE's guideline on falls in older people: assessing risk and prevention )

measure subsequent blood pressures with the person standing

consider referral to specialist care if symptoms of postural hypotension persist despite addressing likely causes. [2004, amended 2023]

If the blood pressure drop is less than the thresholds in recommendation 1.1.6 despite suggestive symptoms and the baseline measurement was previously taken from a seated position, repeat the measurements this time starting with the person lying on their back. [2023]

Consider referring the person for further specialist assessment if blood pressure measurements do not confirm postural hypotension despite suggestive symptoms. [2023]

— Source: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng136/chapter/Recommendations
  Publisher: UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
  Page: "Hypertension in adults: diagnosis and management"
  Section: "Recommendations — 1.1 Measuring blood pressure"
  License: NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetic retinopathy — diabetes and eye problems

Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: According to Diabetes UK, on the topic of "diabetic retinopathy symptoms"

Answer:
In the early stages, diabetic retinopathy does not tend to have any obvious symptoms.

Some of the early signs – and these won’t be the same for everyone – may include:

floaters, these look like wispy clouds, floating in and out of your vision dimmer vision, like you’re wearing sunglasses all the time struggling to see when it’s dark.

If you notice any changes, or you’re struggling to see as clearly as normal, make an appointment with your doctor straight away. Don’t wait until your next screening appointment.

If you have diabetic maculopathy , which is a type of retinopathy that affects the small central part of the retina called the macula, you may notice changes to your central vision. Your vision to the side (peripheral vision) may still be normal.

Diabetic retinopathy develops in stages. When you have a diabetic eye check, you’ll get the results in a letter. It will usually be one of the following:

no eye changes (no signs of diabetic retinopathy) some changes to your eyes eye damage that could affect your sight signs of diabetic maculopathy.

Your healthcare team should discuss these results with you.

Stage one: Background diabetic retinopathy:

Your eyesight isn’t affected yet but there are indications of problems ahead. Tiny bulges have appeared in the blood vessels in the back of your eyes, the retina, which may leak small amounts of blood.

Stage two: Pre-proliferative diabetic retinopathy:

Some changes to your eyes. There’s a high risk your vision could eventually be affected because there are widespread changes in your retina.

Stage three: Proliferative diabetic retinopathy:

Eye damage that could affect your sight. You’re at a very high risk of losing your sight.

Diabetic maculopathy:

Diabetic maculopathy, also known as diabetic macular oedema (DMO), affects the middle part of the retina called the macula which provides central vision.

High blood sugar levels can cause the blood vessels in this part of the eye to become leaky or blocked. If diabetic maculopathy is detected, there is a high risk your central vision may be affected and you may not be able to read or drive.

Diabetic maculopathy isn’t the same as age-related macular degeneration, which is a cause of vision loss for people aged 50 and older. People with diabetes can be affected by this too.

While diabetic retinopathy can’t be reversed, there are treatments available that can slow down or stop sight loss getting worse. If it’s spotted early enough, diabetic retinopathy can nearly always be treated to avoid-long-term sight problems.

The treatment for diabetic retinopathy will depend on the stage it’s reached. See the table below. At every stage, taking or continuing steps to keep your eyes healthy to prevent further damage is important.

Your healthcare team will be able to talk you through any treatment being offered or any potential side effects or risks and answer any of your questions. They will also support you through the treatment.

Laser treatment is used for early proliferative retinopathy and to stabilise some cases of diabetic maculopathy.

The treatment causes the growth of new abnormal blood vessels at the back of your eye to shrink and disappear. It can help stabilise the changes in your eyes caused by your diabetes and stop your vision getting any worse, although it won’t usually improve your sight.

Laser treatment usually takes place at the hospital and is done by an ophthalmologist – an eye doctor.  A session of laser treatment takes around 30 minutes and you may need more than one session. You have the treatment as an outpatient so you don’t stay the night.

You’ll need someone to go with you as you won’t be able to drive or get home on your own. Take some sunglasses as everything may look very bright for a little while afterwards.

You’ll be given eye drops to widen your pupil, the black spot in the middle of your eye. A special contact lens is then put on your eye to hold your eyelids open and focus the laser into the retina. During laser treatment you will see flashes of light. You may feel a stinging sensation which can feel uncomfortable.

Possible side effects:

After laser treatment you may experience some side effects such as blurred vision, discomfort and your eyes may be sensitive to light. The side effects can last a few hours.With more advanced lasers, complications are less common. It is rare but there is a risk of permanent loss of central vision.

If you have proliferative retinopathy or diabetic maculopathy you may be given treatment with anti-VEGF medicines, which are given by injection into your eye.

Anti-VEGF medicines help prevent new blood vessels from forming at the back of your eyes and can help stop the problems in your eyes from getting worse. It may also improve your vision.

You have the injections as an outpatient at the hospital. You won’t be able to drive and you’ll need someone to help you get home because your vision will be blurry for a few hours afterwards.

You will usually have an injection once a month to begin with. Once your vision starts to stabilise, you will have them less often, or stop them altogether, although you’ll still have follow-up appointments.

The injection is done by an ophthalmologist – an eye doctor. It’s a short procedure and should not be painful but might feel uncomfortable:

What to expect:

Eye drops are put into your eye to numb it so it won’t feel painful. The skin around your eyes will be cleaned and covered with a sheet. A small clip is put on your eye to keep it open. A very thin needle is injected into your eyeball. After the injection, eye drops are put into your eye to prevent it from drying out.

Possible side effects:

As with any medical procedure, there is a small risk of complications after the eye injections. They include:

irritated or uncomfortable eyes floaters or a feeling of having something in your eye watery or dry, itchy eyes.

If you have proliferative retinopathy or diabetic retinopathy and can’t have anti-VEGF injections or they haven’t worked, you may be offered an implant containing a steroid medicine.

What to expect:

After having a local anaesthetic first to numb your eye the implant is injected into your eye using a special applicator. The implant slowly releases the steroid over a few months. This reduces swelling in your eye, and can help to improve your eyesight.

The implant eventually dissolves so it does not need to be removed.

If you have very advanced proliferative diabetic retinopathy, you may need eye surgery. This is called vitreoretinal surgery and is an operation to treat eye problems involving the retina, macula and vitreous fluid.

The operation is usually carried out under a local anaesthetic with sedation, so you won’t feel any pain. There’s more information about what to expect from eye surgery on the NHS retinopathy page .

If you lose your sight, it can be difficult to deal with but there are lots of ways to get support. Many people do find ways to cope while living their lives. Find more information about living with sight loss on the RNIB website

We are here to support you if you want to chat things through with one of our trained advisors or want information. Give our helpline a call on 0345 123 2399.

Some people who develop sight loss may also experience sight hallucinations, where you see things that aren’t necessarily there, which can be very frightening. This is called Charles Bonnet Syndrome (CBS). It can occur in people with over 60% sight loss. For more information on CBS visit Esme's Umbrella .

At your diabetic eye screening appointments your eyes will be screened for signs of diabetic retinopathy as part of your annual review. It is different to a normal sight test. If any eye problems are picked up, your healthcare team will discuss your treatment options. See the stages of retinopathy and treatment .

As well as going to your diabetic eye checks, you should still make appointments to see an optician for eye tests, as they can pick up other diabetes-related eye problems.

Other eye problems linked to diabetes are glaucoma – when fluid builds up in the eye, and cataracts – when your vision gets cloudy. As with retinopathy, both conditions can also be caused by high blood sugar levels and can lead to blindness if they aren’t treated. These conditions are usually picked up by a normal eye test at an optician. If you have diabetes, you should get free sight tests on the NHS .

It’s very unlikely that someone with diabetes suddenly wakes up with total sight loss. The damage is gradual. This means that it’s possible to prevent diabetic retinopathy or stop it from getting worse by taking steps to keep your eyes healthy.

You can help look after your eyes by:

going to your eye screening appointments telling your doctor about any changes to your eyesight trying to keep to your blood sugar levels within target range - see below trying to keep your blood pressure and cholesterol in target range eating a healthy balanced diet and being as physically active as you can. stopping smoking if you smoke.

Trying to keep your blood sugar levels within target range:

Sometimes if your blood sugars are high even for a short time your eyesight can become blurry temporarily. If this happens your vision should go back to what you are used to once your blood sugars are in your target range.

This problem is more common in people who have diabetes but are yet to be diagnosed.

Consistently high blood sugar levels make you more at risk of diabetes complications, including serious eye problems. Your healthcare team should tell you your target HbA1c and help you to set a target range for your blood sugar levels. Knowing what your targets are and regularly monitoring your blood sugars can help you keep them in range. This is because the closer you get to your targets the lower your risk of developing eye problems.

There is evidence to suggest that reducing blood sugar levels too quickly if they have been high for a long time may increase the risk of diabetic retinopathy. So it is important to work with your diabetes team to help you to reduce your blood sugar levels gradually over a few weeks or months.

Watch our video to see what difference it can make to your life if sight loss is diagnosed and treated.

{"preview_thumbnail":"/resources-s3/public/styles/video_embed_wysiwyg_preview/public/video_thumbnails/3JyNPm0GRPI.jpg?itok=md_8OC50","video_url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3JyNPm0GRPI&feature=youtu.be","settings":{"responsive":1,"width":"854","height":"480","autoplay":0},"settings_summary":["Embedded Video (Responsive)."]}

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/looking-after-diabetes/complications/retinopathy
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Diabetic retinopathy — diabetes and eye problems"
  Section: "Diabetic retinopathy symptoms"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)

NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: What does NICE recommend about How to introduce medicines — 1.21 Preventing diabetic ketoacidosis when taking SGLT-2 inhibitors? Cite the source.

Answer:
For a short explanation of why the committee made the 2022 recommendations and how they might affect practice, see the rationale and impact section on how to introduce medicines .

Full details of the evidence and the committee's discussion are in evidence review B: pharmacological therapies with cardiovascular and other benefits in people with type 2 diabetes .

— Source: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng28/chapter/How-to-introduce-medicines
  Publisher: UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
  Page: "Type 2 diabetes in adults: management"
  Section: "How to introduce medicines — 1.21 Preventing diabetic ketoacidosis when taking SGLT-2 inhibitors"
  License: NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: According to the NHS, on the topic of "how type 1 diabetes affects your life"

Answer:
Managing type 1 diabetes can be a challenge and take time to get used to. Constantly trying to meet blood glucose targets can lead to a feeling of burnout.

You'll need to do more planning for things like school or work, travel, eating out and exercise.

But with the right treatment and support, you can eat normally, continue with your usual work and still do all the things you enjoy.

Type 1 diabetes can increase your chance of getting other health problems (long-term complications ), such as heart disease, nerve damage and problems with your eyesight. But you'll be given care to help prevent these.

You can also lower your chance of getting complications by managing your blood glucose levels as well as you can.

People with type 1 diabetes also have a higher chance of getting other conditions caused by problems with your immune system (autoimmune conditions), such as thyroid disease, coeliac disease and Addison's disease.

Diabetes treatments and technologies are improving, so people diagnosed with type 1 diabetes today should be able to expect a better quality of life than was possible before.

Many people with type 1 diabetes are able to avoid complications and have long, healthy lives.

— Source: www.nhs.uk/conditions/type-1-diabetes/living-with/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS)
  Page: "Living with type 1 diabetes"
  Section: "How type 1 diabetes affects your life"
  License: NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes Australia, open patient education

Question: According to Diabetes Australia, on the topic of "where do you start"

Answer:
See your GP for exercise clearance, especially if your BGLs are consistently out of your target range. Consider seeking advice from an Accredited Exercise Physiologist for an exercise program tailored to your individual needs.

You can get advice from your podiatrist or GP to choose appropriate footwear. It is a good idea to wear enclosed shoes and to check your feet before and after exercise for any changes or concerns.

Plan to do your physical activity at regular times on set days to reduce the chance of hypoglycaemia . Plan what exercise you’ll do, how often, for how long and at what intensity. Talk to your diabetes educator particularly if you’re balancing medication. Read more about BGLs and exercise.

If you wear medical alert identification, such as a bracelet or chain, ensure you have this on. Apply sunscreen and protect your head and body against the sun. Drink plenty of water before, during and after exercising to avoid dehydration.

Ask yourself:

Am I feeling well? It is not recommended that you exercise when you are feeling unwell. Take time out to rest and start exercising again when you are feeling better. Have I checked my BGL? When you are starting a new exercise routine or changing your current routine, it is important to check your BGLs more regularly. For people who require blood glucose lowering medication or insulin you should check your BGLs before, during and after exercise to avoid hypoglycaemia.

Check your BGLs every 20-30 minutes if the intensity, type or duration is new to you, or you experience symptoms of hypoglycaemia or hyperglycaemia.

Check your BGL and monitor it for up to 24 hours. Have a carbohydrate snack or meal, if required. Be aware of overnight hypoglycaemia. Have a low GI snack before bed if you think your BGLs might drop during the night. If you require blood glucose lowering medication or insulin you may need to adjust your dose as your BGL reduces as a result of the exercise. This is particularly important if you are exercising at a high intensity or for longer than 30 minutes at a time. Speak to your health care team before making any changes to your medication dose.

— Source: www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/living-with-diabetes/exercise/
  Publisher: Diabetes Australia
  Page: "Diabetes Australia"
  Section: "Where do you start?"
  License: Diabetes Australia, open patient education
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes Australia, open patient education

Question: According to Diabetes Australia, on the topic of "overview"

Answer:
Think about how many times people have said: “I couldn’t do that” when you tell them you have diabetes and inject insulin , or that you have to calculate the carbohydrate content of your meals. Of course it can be annoying to hear such a comment when the fact is you don’t have a choice, but it is good to remember that looking after diabetes is hard, and you do it. You manage fingerpricks, medication and diet , as well as everything else in your life. Look at what you do – you are amazing!

Diabetes can be frustrating. What works one day may not work the next. No matter what you do, keeping to targets can be challenging especially during times of stress and illness. You’d think that if you do what you know is right then your glucose levels will be perfect, right? Wrong!  Sometimes diabetes seems to have a life of its own.

Some days it’s far easier to live with the ups and downs than others. Every now and again it can all feel too difficult. So, what can you do during challenging times?

If you had a friend who was struggling, how would you best support them? Think about what you would say to them. Those words are just as valid said to yourself.

Sometimes you might feel that you need permission to look after yourself and that you are being selfish. But putting yourself first is exactly what you need to do to build resilience to help you manage. If you care for yourself, you will be better placed to care for the people around you.

Talk a walk in the sun, read a good book or enjoy a long bath – make sure you do something relaxing every day. Research shows regular exercise can improve your mood and mental health and getting enough sleep is very important. It’s amazing what a good night’s sleep can do for you.

Just like everyone else, to stay healthy you need to take care of yourself, but that doesn’t mean being perfect. Allow yourself to have the occasional treat. Be kind to yourself when things don’t go to plan. Diabetes is only one part of your life, not your life.

Remember that there are people to support you. It may be a friend, a support group, your diabetes educator, your local area health team, your doctor or a psychologist.

— Source: www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/blog/managing-diabetes/
  Publisher: Diabetes Australia
  Page: "Diabetes Australia"
  Section: "Overview"
  License: Diabetes Australia, open patient education
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: How does Diabetes UK describe What is diabetes mellitus? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Diabetes mellitus is the scientific name for diabetes, but it is more commonly known simply as diabetes. It’s when your body can’t produce enough of a hormone called insulin, or the insulin it produces isn’t effective.

There are two main types of diabetes mellitus: type 1 and type 2.

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/types-of-diabetes/diabetes-mellitus
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Diabetes mellitus"
  Section: "What is diabetes mellitus?"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: How does Healthdirect Australia describe Is a cardiac arrest the same as a heart attack? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
A cardiac arrest and a heart attack are both medical emergencies. However, they are not the same thing.

A heart attack is where a blocked artery reduces blood flow to the heart muscle. It causes chest pain and breathing difficulties but the heart can usually continue to beat. Sometimes a heart attack can lead to a cardiac arrest.

A cardiac arrest is where there is a problem with the electrical signals that tell your heart to beat. Your heart stops beating or doesn't beat properly. This leads to unconsciousness ('passing out') and loss of breathing. Immediate treatment is needed to get your heart working again.

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/heart-attack
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "Is a cardiac arrest the same as a heart attack?"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: What does Healthdirect Australia say about Key facts? Cite the source.

Answer:
Hypoglycaemia is when you have too little glucose (sugar) in your blood. People with diabetes who take medicines to lower their blood glucose level can be at risk of having a hypoglycaemic episode (known as a 'hypo'). Symptoms of a hypo include feeling shaky, light-headedness, sweating and irritability. If a person with diabetes is having a hypo and is not drowsy or unconscious, treat it quickly with glucose (for example, with jelly beans or some honey). If hypoglycaemia gets worse, you can become unconscious or have a seizure and will need emergency care.

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/hypoglycaemia-low-blood-sugar
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "Key facts"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


UK National Health Service (NHS) — Medicines A-Z

NHS website medicines A-Z, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: How does the NHS describe 6. Pregnancy and breastfeeding? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Levothyroxine is safe to take in pregnancy.

It's important to carry on taking levothyroxine throughout your pregnancy. Having too low or too high levels of thyroid hormone in pregnancy can cause problems for you and your baby.

You'll need to have regular blood tests during pregnancy to make sure you're on the right dose of levothyroxine. Your doctor may need to increase your dose of levothyroxine while you’re pregnant.

It's OK to breastfeed while you're on levothyroxine. Thyroid hormones are a normal part of breast milk. When taken as a supplement they only pass into breast milk in tiny amounts that are too small to affect your baby.

If you're breastfeeding, it's important that you continue to take levothyroxine, as this is replacing what your body would normally be making. Your body needs good levels of thyroid hormones to make enough breast milk for your baby.

If you notice that your baby is not feeding as well as usual, or if you have any other concerns about your baby, talk to your midwife, health visitor, pharmacist or doctor as soon as possible.

trying to get pregnant pregnant breastfeeding

— Source: www.nhs.uk/medicines/levothyroxine/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS) — Medicines A-Z
  Page: "Levothyroxine - Brand name: Eltroxin"
  Section: "6. Pregnancy and breastfeeding"
  License: NHS website medicines A-Z, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)

NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: What is the NICE recommendation on Rationale and impact — Initial medicines: people with type 2 diabetes and no relevant comorbidities? Quote the guideline.

Answer:
Recommendations 1.13.1 and 1.13.2

There is good evidence that managing type 2 diabetes should aim to improve health holistically (in particular, cardiovascular and renal protection), rather than just aim to meet HbA1c targets.

The evidence on antidiabetic therapies covered a diverse patient group, including, in varying proportions, people:

with multiple cardiovascular risk factors with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, heart failure or chronic kidney disease who likely had a lower cardiovascular risk.

with multiple cardiovascular risk factors

with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, heart failure or chronic kidney disease

who likely had a lower cardiovascular risk.

The committee agreed that this population likely reflected the population that will be seen most often in general practice.

Overall, network and pairwise meta-analyses comparing antidiabetic therapies showed that treatment combining metformin with an SGLT-2-inhibitor was more clinically effective at reducing HbA1c, weight and cardiovascular events than:

any other therapy combining metformin with 1 other medicine, and metformin alone.

any other therapy combining metformin with 1 other medicine, and

metformin alone.

Cardiovascular events covered by the evidence included cardiovascular mortality, myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke and hospitalisation for heart failure.

The evidence also showed that canagliflozin and dapagliflozin reduced the risk of end-stage renal failure.

The committee weighed the greater likelihood of cardiovascular and renal benefits against the risk of volume depletion and genital mycotic infections. The evidence found that, in people taking metformin combined with an SGLT-2 inhibitor, compared with those who did not take an SGLT-2 inhibitor, there were reductions in the number of:

deaths from cardiovascular disease heart attack or stroke 3-item MACE hospitalisation for heart failure.

deaths from cardiovascular disease

heart attack or stroke 3-item MACE

hospitalisation for heart failure.

The evidence found, for example, that:

123 out of 1,000 people who did not take an SGLT-2 inhibitor had a major adverse cardiovascular event, known as a 3-item MACE event, over 3 years (that is, a non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke or death from a cardiovascular cause), compared with 107 to 115 people out of 1,000 people who were taking an SGLT-2 inhibitor for 3 years 54 out of 1,000 people who did not take an SGLT-2 inhibitor were hospitalised with heart failure over 3 years, compared with 26 to 40 people out of 1,000 people who were taking an SGLT-2 inhibitor for 3 years.

123 out of 1,000 people who did not take an SGLT-2 inhibitor had a major adverse cardiovascular event, known as a 3-item MACE event, over 3 years (that is, a non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke or death from a cardiovascular cause), compared with 107 to 115 people out of 1,000 people who were taking an SGLT-2 inhibitor for 3 years

54 out of 1,000 people who did not take an SGLT-2 inhibitor were hospitalised with heart failure over 3 years, compared with 26 to 40 people out of 1,000 people who were taking an SGLT-2 inhibitor for 3 years.

These clinically important reductions were weighed against the chance that:

between 10 and 100 in 1,000 people would experience genital infections 1 in 1,000 or fewer people would experience rarer events like diabetic ketoacidosis or Fournier's gangrene or other severe infections.

between 10 and 100 in 1,000 people would experience genital infections

1 in 1,000 or fewer people would experience rarer events like diabetic ketoacidosis or Fournier's gangrene or other severe infections.

Given this, the committee agreed that, for most people, the benefits outweighed the risks. They agreed that the risk of volume depletion is manageable, and that it would be uncommon for it to lead to diabetic ketoacidosis. They agreed that these risks should be discussed with the person ahead of starting treatment.

The committee also agreed that providing SGLT-2 inhibitors and metformin as a part of standard therapy for most people with type 2 diabetes could reduce inequality. Evidence indicated that interventions to reduce socioeconomic inequalities, including health inequalities, often include actions that address the population or health system level which requires limited voluntary behaviour change on the part of an individual person. Evidence shows that SGLT-2 inhibitors provide net health benefits for people with type 2 diabetes living in the most deprived areas. The committee agreed that this is an important reason for ensuring universal access to SGLT-2 inhibitors.

For the 2026 update, the committee was aware of the large reduction in price of dapagliflozin because generic versions were becoming available. They did not make a recommendation for dapagliflozin, acknowledging that other medicines in the same class were as effective and may become cheaper in the future. However, they support its use while it is the least expensive of the SGLT-2 inhibitors that may be suitable, because it is likely to reduce the cost of implementing the recommendation without negatively affecting quality of care.

People with type 2 diabetes have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease than people with the same health-related characteristics and no diabetes. The committee acknowledged that people with type 2 diabetes have an inherent increased lifetime risk of cardiovascular disease before accounting for any other cardiovascular risk factors that are more commonly associated with the condition, such as hypertension and dyslipidaemia. Therefore, in the absence of direct evidence, the committee agreed that even people with a relatively lower cardiovascular risk should be offered an SGLT-2 inhibitor and metformin, because it is important to reduce this risk, including for those without comorbidities or other cardiovascular risk factors. They also noted that, compared with groups who have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease, including people with early onset type 2 diabetes, the population that these recommendations cover is small. This population includes people likely to be 41 to 59 years old, who have no cardiovascular risk factors other than type 2 diabetes (who would otherwise be identified to have a QRISK score below 10%).

Because of their age, they may share similarities with people with early onset type 2 diabetes, for whom earlier intensive treatment is recommended.

Taking the evidence into account, the committee agreed that combining metformin with an SGLT-2 inhibitor is the most clinically effective therapy option, and that this should be the standard initial treatment for people with no relevant comorbidities.

There was limited evidence comparing standard-release and modified-release metformin for people with type 2 diabetes and no relevant comorbidities, and the committee agreed that there are benefits to recommending modified-release metformin first. This is because, when compared with standard-release metformin, modified-release metformin:

has similar clinical effectiveness on HbA1c and weight reduction has similar safety results for hypoglycaemia is associated, in evidence outside of the protocol for the review, with reductions in gastrointestinal adverse events is likely to be better adhered to, and the committee was aware of the downstream costs of non-adherence (for example, cardiovascular and renal adverse events, further appointments and investigations), and can fluctuate in price but, in December 2025, cost less than standard-release metformin.

has similar clinical effectiveness on HbA1c and weight reduction

has similar safety results for hypoglycaemia

is associated, in evidence outside of the protocol for the review, with reductions in gastrointestinal adverse events

is likely to be better adhered to, and the committee was aware of the downstream costs of non-adherence (for example, cardiovascular and renal adverse events, further appointments and investigations), and

can fluctuate in price but, in December 2025, cost less than standard-release metformin.

The committee noted that standard-release metformin may be preferable for people with difficulty swallowing because unlike modified-release metformin, it can be crushed and is available in a liquid form. This may be appropriate for people with dementia or with learning disabilities in whom dysphagia is more common. The committee did not make a recommendation about this because they were aware that NEWT guidelines provide further information to support decision making for people with swallowing difficulties.

The committee agreed that this should be addressed in a conversation between the person and the healthcare professional when prescribing the medication.

GLP-1 receptor agonists and tirzepatide were not found to be or did not have evidence for clinical or cost effectiveness for this population, so were not recommended.

The evidence showed that SGLT-2 inhibitors reduced cardiovascular events compared with placebo when metformin is the background therapy. The committee agreed that even though the evidence was limited for people with no relevant comorbidities, this benefit would also be seen in people for whom metformin is contraindicated. Therefore, because the committee wanted people with type 2 diabetes to continue to gain the cardiovascular benefits seen in the evidence, they recommended monotherapy with an SGLT-2 inhibitor when metformin is contraindicated.

The committee reviewed real-world evidence that SGLT-2 inhibitors are under-prescribed, particularly to women and older people, people from some ethnic backgrounds, and people who have experienced higher levels of deprivation when sex and age are accounted for. They agreed that further research is needed to understand the reasons behind this so made a recommendation for research on improving access to SGLT-2 inhibitors .

The recommendations may lead to a change in current practice but should not lead to a significant cost or resource impact. The price of modified-release metformin can fluctuate but, in December 2025, was lower than the cost of standard-release metformin.

SGLT-2 inhibitors were recommended by NICE in 2022 for:

all people with chronic heart failure all people with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease some people at high risk of developing cardiovascular disease.

all people with chronic heart failure

all people with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease

some people at high risk of developing cardiovascular disease.

Recommendations for SGLT-2 inhibitors for people with chronic kidney disease were previously made through different guidance but are not expected to reflect a significant change in practice.

However, real-world evidence (2026) shows that SGLT-2 inhibitors are under-prescribed throughout the UK. The 2026 recommendations may increase the number of people who are offered SGLT-2 inhibitors, which will increase prescribing costs. But broader access to SGLT-2 inhibitors may also result in long-term medicine costs being partially offset by fewer people needing treatment for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.

Based on these recommendations, people at lower risk of developing cardiovascular disease, who previously would not have had access to SGLT-2 inhibitors, can now access them. The committee did not believe this to be a large group and so the impact of this is likely to be minimal.

The recommendations may lead to an increase in the number of appointments required to optimise the medications being added. However, this can be managed and may lead to reductions in the long term because:

SGLT-2 inhibitors can be prescribed at the same time as metformin, with a plan for starting medicines sequentially the cardiovascular and renal benefits of SGLT-2 inhibitors will reduce the number of appointments needed to treat atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, established heart failure and chronic kidney disease.

SGLT-2 inhibitors can be prescribed at the same time as metformin, with a plan for starting medicines sequentially

the cardiovascular and renal benefits of SGLT-2 inhibitors will reduce the number of appointments needed to treat atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, established heart failure and chronic kidney disease.

Return to recommendations

— Source: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng28/chapter/Rationale-and-impact
  Publisher: UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
  Page: "Type 2 diabetes in adults: management"
  Section: "Rationale and impact — Initial medicines: people with type 2 diabetes and no relevant comorbidities"
  License: NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes Australia, open patient education

Question: What does Diabetes Australia say about Flash Glucose Monitors (Flash GM)? Cite the source.

Answer:
A Flash GM is a sensor worn on the arm for 2 weeks. The sensor reads the level of glucose

in between the cells just underneath the skin. and The sensor needs to be scanned with a reader or smart phone application (app) to display the result. The sensor reads glucose levels every 5 minutes and retains 8 hours of readings which can be downloaded to give you and your diabetes team more insight into your blood glucose management. Flash GM can now be set to alarm when glucose levels are outside your target range. It is important to know that Flash GMs do not measure blood glucose levels so you will still need to do finger prick checks in certain circumstances. This is because Flash GM readings lag behind blood glucose readings by 5-10 minutes.

A CGM is a device which reads the level of glucose in between the cells just underneath the skin continuously . The device consists of a sensor and a transmitter. The sensor is replaced every 1-2 weeks and reattached to the reusable transmitter device. The continuous glucose reading can be sent to a receiver, smart phone app or insulin pump. CGMs can be set to produce audible alarms when glucose levels are outside of the healthy range, for example overnight. It is important to know that CGMs may  require calibration with twice daily blood glucose meter readings because CGM readings lag behind blood glucose readings by 5-10 minutes.

— Source: www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/managing-diabetes/blood-glucose-monitoring/
  Publisher: Diabetes Australia
  Page: "Diabetes Australia"
  Section: "Flash Glucose Monitors (Flash GM)"
  License: Diabetes Australia, open patient education
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)

Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management

NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: What does NICE recommend about Recommendations — 1.5 Service provision? Cite the source.

Answer:
Give young people with diabetes enough time to understand how transition from paediatric to adult services will work, because this improves clinic attendance. [2004, amended 2015]

Agree specific local protocols for transferring young people with diabetes from paediatric to adult services. [2004, amended 2015]

Base the decision on when a young person should transfer to the adult service on their physical development and emotional maturity, and on local circumstances. [2004, amended 2015]

Ensure that transition from the paediatric service occurs at a time of relative stability in the young person's health, and that it is coordinated with other life transitions. [2004, amended 2015]

Explain to young people with type 1 diabetes who are preparing for transition to adult services that some aspects of diabetes care will change. [2004, amended 2015]

— Source: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng18/chapter/Recommendations
  Publisher: UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
  Page: "Diabetes (type 1 and type 2) in children and young people: diagnosis and management"
  Section: "Recommendations — 1.5 Service provision"
  License: NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: According to Healthdirect Australia, on the topic of "can cushing's syndrome be prevented"

Answer:
Cushing's syndrome can be caused by long-term use of high-dose corticosteroids to treat conditions such as asthma or rheumatoid arthritis . If you are taking a corticosteroid medicine, see your doctor regularly for monitoring.

Unfortunately, you can't prevent Cushing's syndrome caused by a tumour.

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/cushings-syndrome
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "Can Cushing's syndrome be prevented?"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


WHO content (UN agency, public-domain fact sheet, attribution required)

Question: How does the WHO describe Gestational diabetes? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Gestational diabetes is hyperglycaemia with blood glucose values above normal but below those diagnostic of diabetes. Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy.

Women with gestational diabetes are at an increased risk of complications during pregnancy and at delivery. These women and possibly their children are also at increased risk of type 2 diabetes in the future.

Gestational diabetes is diagnosed through prenatal screening, rather than through reported symptoms.

— Source: www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes
  Publisher: World Health Organization (WHO)
  Page: "Diabetes"
  Section: "Gestational diabetes"
  License: WHO content (UN agency, public-domain fact sheet, attribution required)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)

Hypertension in adults: diagnosis and management

Recommendations — 1.1 Measuring blood pressure

NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: According to NICE guidance, on the topic of "recommendations — 1.1 measuring blood pressure"

Answer:
Ensure that healthcare professionals taking blood pressure measurements have adequate initial training and periodic review of their performance. [2004]

Because automated devices may not measure blood pressure accurately if there is pulse irregularity (for example, due to atrial fibrillation), palpate the radial or brachial pulse before measuring blood pressure. If pulse irregularity is present, measure blood pressure manually using direct auscultation over the brachial artery. [2011]

Healthcare providers must ensure that devices for measuring blood pressure are properly validated, maintained and regularly recalibrated according to manufacturers' instructions. See the British and Irish Hypertension Society's website for a list of validated blood pressure monitoring devices . [2004]

When measuring blood pressure in the clinic or in the home, standardise the environment and provide a relaxed, temperate setting, with the person quiet and seated, and their arm outstretched and supported. Use an appropriate cuff size for the person's arm. [2011, amended 2019]

In people with symptoms of postural hypotension, including falls or postural dizziness:

measure blood pressure with the person lying on their back (or consider a seated position, if it is inconvenient to measure blood pressure with the person lying down) measure blood pressure again after the person has been standing for at least 1 minute. [2004, amended 2023]

measure blood pressure with the person lying on their back (or consider a seated position, if it is inconvenient to measure blood pressure with the person lying down)

measure blood pressure again after the person has been standing for at least 1 minute. [2004, amended 2023]

If the person's systolic blood pressure falls by 20 mmHg or more, or their diastolic blood pressure falls by 10 mmHg or more, after the person has been standing for at least 1 minute:

consider likely causes, including reviewing their current medication manage appropriately (for example, for advice on preventing falls in older people, see NICE's guideline on falls in older people: assessing risk and prevention ) measure subsequent blood pressures with the person standing consider referral to specialist care if symptoms of postural hypotension persist despite addressing likely causes. [2004, amended 2023]

consider likely causes, including reviewing their current medication

manage appropriately (for example, for advice on preventing falls in older people, see NICE's guideline on falls in older people: assessing risk and prevention )

measure subsequent blood pressures with the person standing

consider referral to specialist care if symptoms of postural hypotension persist despite addressing likely causes. [2004, amended 2023]

If the blood pressure drop is less than the thresholds in recommendation 1.1.6 despite suggestive symptoms and the baseline measurement was previously taken from a seated position, repeat the measurements this time starting with the person lying on their back. [2023]

Consider referring the person for further specialist assessment if blood pressure measurements do not confirm postural hypotension despite suggestive symptoms. [2023]

— Source: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng136/chapter/Recommendations
  Publisher: UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
  Page: "Hypertension in adults: diagnosis and management"
  Section: "Recommendations — 1.1 Measuring blood pressure"
  License: NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: According to the NHS, on the topic of "insulin"

Answer:
Insulin is a medicine that reduces your blood glucose (sugar).

There are different types of insulin, taken at different times. You'll need to calculate how much you need and inject it several times a day using an insulin pen, or use an insulin pump.

Too much insulin causes hypoglycaemia , or hypos. You'll be taught how to recognise the symptoms and how to treat a hypo.

Your diabetes care team will help you find the insulin routine that's best for you.

If you have type 1 diabetes, you're entitled to free prescriptions for all your medicines.

Insulin Living with type 1 diabetes

An insulin pump is a small device you attach to your skin and wear all the time. It gives you tiny amounts of insulin throughout the day and night. This can reduce hypos and improve your blood glucose levels, compared to insulin injections.

You may be able to get an insulin pump on the NHS if:

you cannot reach your target average blood glucose level (HbA1c level) without having serious problems with hypos your HbA1c levels are too high despite carefully trying to manage your diabetes

Pumps are also recommended for children under 12 years old who cannot easily have injections several times a day.

Diabetes UK: insulin pumps

Some types of insulin pump work with a continuous glucose monitor to automatically give you the right amount of insulin based on your blood glucose levels. This is called a hybrid closed loop system.

A hybrid closed loop system can reduce hypos, improve your blood glucose levels and reduce the burden of managing diabetes.

Hybrid closed loop systems are gradually being made available on the NHS.

You may be able to have one if:

you're under 18 years old you're pregnant or planning to get pregnant an insulin pump or continuous glucose monitor on its own is not working well enough to reduce your blood glucose or prevent serious problems with hypos

Continuous glucose monitoring and hybrid closed loop for diabetes Diabetes UK: closed loop systems

— Source: www.nhs.uk/conditions/type-1-diabetes/treatment/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS)
  Page: "Treatment for type 1 diabetes"
  Section: "Insulin"
  License: NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: What does Healthdirect Australia say about What should I do while waiting for the ambulance? Cite the source.

Answer:
If you are having symptoms of a heart attack, you should:

chew aspirin — take 300 milligrams of aspirin (unless you are allergic to it). Chewing aspirin during a heart attack can help reduce heart damage. take glyceryl trinitrate — if your doctor has prescribed this medicine for an existing heart condition, take it as directed.

If someone is unconscious or not breathing, call for help and start CPR immediately. If available, use a defibrillator .

Do not drive if you're having a heart attack. If no ambulance is available, ask a bystander or neighbour to take you to the hospital.

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/heart-attack
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "What should I do while waiting for the ambulance?"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


UK National Health Service (NHS) — Medicines A-Z

Pregnancy, breastfeeding and fertility while taking atorvastatin

NHS website medicines A-Z, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: How does the NHS describe Atorvastatin and pregnancy? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Atorvastatin is not recommended during pregnancy. If you become pregnant while taking atorvastatin, stop taking the medicine and tell your doctor.

Talk to your doctor if you are trying to get pregnant. Whether you continue to take atorvastatin or not depends on your reason for taking it. It may be possible to switch to an alternative medicine that is better during pregnancy. Sometimes it may be better to keep taking atorvastatin until you have a positive pregnancy test and then stop.

— Source: www.nhs.uk/medicines/atorvastatin/pregnancy-breastfeeding-and-fertility-while-taking-atorvastatin/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS) — Medicines A-Z
  Page: "Pregnancy, breastfeeding and fertility while taking atorvastatin"
  Section: "Atorvastatin and pregnancy"
  License: NHS website medicines A-Z, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)

NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: What is the NICE recommendation on Initial medicines — 1.17 People living with obesity? Quote the guideline.

Answer:
For a short explanation of why the committee made the 2026 recommendations and how they might affect practice, see the rationale and impact section on initial medicines for people with type 2 diabetes who are living with obesity .

Full details of the evidence and the committee's discussion are in:

evidence review E: initial management evidence review F: subsequent management .

evidence review E: initial management

evidence review F: subsequent management .

— Source: www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng28/chapter/Initial-medicines
  Publisher: UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
  Page: "Type 2 diabetes in adults: management"
  Section: "Initial medicines — 1.17 People living with obesity"
  License: NICE guidance, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: Per Healthdirect Australia guidance on What are the complications of a stroke, what is the summary?

Answer:
Having a stroke can cause serious long-term complications, including:

difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) fatigue , weakness or lack of movement (paralysis) of one side of your body or all your limbs bladder and bowel incontinence sensory problems — changes to how things feel when you touch them perceptual problems — changes to how you see or understand things cognitive problems — difficulty thinking and remembering difficulty speaking (dysarthria) , reading or writing

A stroke can also impact your mental health . You may struggle with your emotions after a stroke. Depression and anxiety are also common.

Depending on which part of your brain is affected, changes in your personality and behaviour can also develop. This can be very distressing for your family and close friends.

Sometimes a stroke can be fatal.

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/stroke
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "What are the complications of a stroke?"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes Australia, open patient education

Question: What does Diabetes Australia say about What happens with type 2 diabetes? Cite the source.

Answer:
Type 2 diabetes develops over a long period of time (years). During this period of time insulin resistance starts, this is where the insulin is increasingly ineffective at managing the blood glucose levels. As a result of this insulin resistance, the pancreas responds by producing greater and greater amounts of insulin, to try and achieve some degree of management of the blood glucose levels i .

As insulin overproduction occurs over a very long period of time, the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas wear themselves out, so that by the time someone is diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, they have lost 50 – 70% of their insulin-producing cells. This means type 2 diabetes is a combination of ineffective insulin and not enough insulin. Lifestyle changes may be able to slow this process in some people.

Initially, type 2 diabetes can often be managed with healthy eating and regular physical activity. Over time many people with type 2 diabetes will also need tablets, and/or non-insulin injectable medications and many eventually require insulin injections. It is important to note that this is normal, and taking tablets, non-insulin injectable medications or insulin as soon as they are required can result in fewer long-term complications.

— Source: www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/about-diabetes/type-2-diabetes/
  Publisher: Diabetes Australia
  Page: "Diabetes Australia"
  Section: "What happens with type 2 diabetes?"
  License: Diabetes Australia, open patient education
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes information in different languages and formats

Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: How does Diabetes UK describe Diabetes information in Urdu / ذیابیطس اردو میں معلومات? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Why diabetes check-ups matter – easy read (Urdu) (click the language button to change the language) What is diabetes? video (Urdu) What is type 1 diabetes? video (Urdu) What is type 2 diabetes? video (Urdu) What is type 2 diabetes remission? video (Urdu) Newly diagnosed with diabetes (Urdu) / ذیابیطس کی پہلی مرتبہ تشخیص آگے کیا ہے؟ (PDF, 2.5MB) Ramadan and diabetes (Urdu) Sick Day Rules (Urdu) (PDF, 249KB) Diabetes and looking after your feet (Urdu) (PDF, 839KB) Diabetes symptoms video (Urdu) (click the subtitles button to change the language) Exercise videos (Urdu) (click the subtitles button to change the language) How to measure your waist video (Urdu) (click the subtitles button to change the language) How to test your blood sugars video (Urdu) (click the subtitles button to change the language) Five Ways to Move More exercise posters (Urdu) Enjoy Food booklet for a South Asian diet

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/information-in-different-languages
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Diabetes information in different languages and formats"
  Section: "Diabetes information in Urdu / ذیابیطس اردو میں معلومات"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: Per NHS patient-facing guidance on Pregnancy and type 1 diabetes, what is the summary?

Answer:
You can have a healthy pregnancy if you have type 1 diabetes. But managing diabetes might be harder while you're pregnant.

Planning a pregnancy can reduce the chance of problems for you and your baby.

It's important to manage your blood glucose levels as well as you can before and during your pregnancy to keep you and your baby well.

Speak to your diabetes team if you're planning to get pregnant. You'll be offered extra appointments and tests, and help with your diabetes treatment.

Find out more about diabetes and pregnancy

— Source: www.nhs.uk/conditions/type-1-diabetes/living-with/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS)
  Page: "Living with type 1 diabetes"
  Section: "Pregnancy and type 1 diabetes"
  License: NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: How does the NHS describe How to reduce your risk of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
If you have diabetes, it's important to be aware of the symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and how to reduce the risk of getting it.

Causes of DKA can include being unwell, having an injury or surgery, having your period, or not taking enough insulin .

Testing for ketones will help you know when you need to take action, such as increasing your insulin dose.

You can get kit to test for ketones free from the NHS, or buy it from a pharmacy. You can use:

a ketone meter to test your blood some types of blood glucose monitor that also test for ketones strips to test your pee

follow the treatment plan agreed with your diabetes care team, including adjusting your insulin dose when you need to check your blood glucose regularly ask your care team about getting a continuous glucose monitor or flash monitor if you do not already have one test for ketones when your blood glucose is high and when you're ill follow the sick day rules you've been given by your care team when you're ill contact your care team if you're not sure what to do

follow the treatment plan agreed with your diabetes care team, including adjusting your insulin dose when you need to

check your blood glucose regularly

ask your care team about getting a continuous glucose monitor or flash monitor if you do not already have one

test for ketones when your blood glucose is high and when you're ill

follow the sick day rules you've been given by your care team when you're ill

contact your care team if you're not sure what to do

do not stop taking insulin, even if you're not eating do not skip insulin doses

do not stop taking insulin, even if you're not eating

do not skip insulin doses

— Source: www.nhs.uk/conditions/diabetic-ketoacidosis/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS)
  Page: "Diabetic ketoacidosis"
  Section: "How to reduce your risk of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)"
  License: NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: According to Healthdirect Australia, on the topic of "what are the complications of a stroke"

Answer:
Having a stroke can cause serious long-term complications, including:

difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) fatigue , weakness or lack of movement (paralysis) of one side of your body or all your limbs bladder and bowel incontinence sensory problems — changes to how things feel when you touch them perceptual problems — changes to how you see or understand things cognitive problems — difficulty thinking and remembering difficulty speaking (dysarthria) , reading or writing

A stroke can also impact your mental health . You may struggle with your emotions after a stroke. Depression and anxiety are also common.

Depending on which part of your brain is affected, changes in your personality and behaviour can also develop. This can be very distressing for your family and close friends.

Sometimes a stroke can be fatal.

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/stroke
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "What are the complications of a stroke?"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes information in different languages and formats

Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: What does Diabetes UK say about Diabetes information in Nepali / नेपालीमा मधुमेह सम्बन्धी जानकारी? Cite the source.

Answer:
Sick Day Rules (Nepali) (PDF, 233KB) What is diabetes? video (Nepali) (click the subtitles button to change the language) What is type 1 diabetes? video (Nepali) (click the subtitles button to change the language) What is type 2 diabetes? video (Nepali) (click the subtitles button to change the language) Type 2 diabetes remission video (Nepali) (click the subtitles button to change the language)

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/information-in-different-languages
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Diabetes information in different languages and formats"
  Section: "Diabetes information in Nepali / नेपालीमा मधुमेह सम्बन्धी जानकारी"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)

Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on.

Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)

Question: How does Healthdirect Australia describe Can gestational diabetes be prevented? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
Gestational diabetes often can't be prevented.

You can reduce your risk by maintaining a healthy weight and keeping physically active.

If you are already pregnant and are at a high risk of developing gestational diabetes, speak to your doctor or a dietitian for advice.

Managing gestational diabetes can reduce the chance of having type 2 diabetes after pregnancy. You can:

maintain a healthy weight eat a healthy diet be physically active have regular screening tests for diabetes , as recommended by your doctor

— Source: www.healthdirect.gov.au/gestational-diabetes
  Publisher: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government)
  Page: "Healthdirect Free Australian health advice you can count on."
  Section: "Can gestational diabetes be prevented?"
  License: Healthdirect Australia (Australian Government, CC BY)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: What does the NHS say about Who diabetic eye screening is for? Cite the source.

Answer:
If you have diabetes and you're aged 12 or over, you'll get a letter every 1 or 2 years asking you to have diabetic eye screening.

If you have gestational diabetes, which is often a temporary condition, you will not be invited for diabetic eye screening.

— Source: www.nhs.uk/tests-and-treatments/diabetic-eye-screening/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS)
  Page: "Diabetic eye screening"
  Section: "Who diabetic eye screening is for"
  License: NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: What does Diabetes UK say about Cystic fibrosis diabetes? Cite the source.

Answer:
Cystic fibrosis diabetes is the most common type of diabetes in people with cystic fibrosis. Although it has features of both type 1 and type 2, it is a different condition.

Find out more about cystic fibrosis diabetes

Monogenic diabetes is a rare condition, different from both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. It’s caused by a mutation in a single gene. If a parent has this mutation, their children have a 50 per cent chance of inheriting it. Since monogenic diabetes is so rare, people can often get misdiagnosed.

And in some cases of monogenic diabetes, the condition can be managed with specific tablets and doesn’t require insulin treatment. That’s why it’s incredibly important to understand rare forms of diabetes and diagnose them correctly.

(There are two types of monogenic diabetes - Neonatal and MODY ).

In April 2025, type 5 diabetes was officially recognised by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) as a type of diabetes related to malnutrition. Also known as malnutrition-related diabetes, it is distinct from both type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes, and is primarily caused by chronic undernutrition, especially during childhood or adolescence.

The IDF estimates that type 5 diabetes affects between 20-25 million people worldwide, primarily in Asia and Africa. Find out more about type 5 diabetes on the IDF website

Some people think diabetes inspidius is a type of diabetes because it has the word ‘diabetes’. But that’s not the case. It is completely different condition to diabetes (scentific name – diabetes mellitus).

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/types-of-diabetes
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Types of diabetes"
  Section: "Cystic fibrosis diabetes"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Diabetic retinopathy — diabetes and eye problems

Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: How does Diabetes UK describe Preventing diabetic retinopathy? Provide the verbatim source.

Answer:
It’s very unlikely that someone with diabetes suddenly wakes up with total sight loss. The damage is gradual. This means that it’s possible to prevent diabetic retinopathy or stop it from getting worse by taking steps to keep your eyes healthy.

You can help look after your eyes by:

going to your eye screening appointments telling your doctor about any changes to your eyesight trying to keep to your blood sugar levels within target range - see below trying to keep your blood pressure and cholesterol in target range eating a healthy balanced diet and being as physically active as you can. stopping smoking if you smoke.

Trying to keep your blood sugar levels within target range:

Sometimes if your blood sugars are high even for a short time your eyesight can become blurry temporarily. If this happens your vision should go back to what you are used to once your blood sugars are in your target range.

This problem is more common in people who have diabetes but are yet to be diagnosed.

Consistently high blood sugar levels make you more at risk of diabetes complications, including serious eye problems. Your healthcare team should tell you your target HbA1c and help you to set a target range for your blood sugar levels. Knowing what your targets are and regularly monitoring your blood sugars can help you keep them in range. This is because the closer you get to your targets the lower your risk of developing eye problems.

There is evidence to suggest that reducing blood sugar levels too quickly if they have been high for a long time may increase the risk of diabetic retinopathy. So it is important to work with your diabetes team to help you to reduce your blood sugar levels gradually over a few weeks or months.

Watch our video to see what difference it can make to your life if sight loss is diagnosed and treated.

{"preview_thumbnail":"/resources-s3/public/styles/video_embed_wysiwyg_preview/public/video_thumbnails/3JyNPm0GRPI.jpg?itok=md_8OC50","video_url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3JyNPm0GRPI&feature=youtu.be","settings":{"responsive":1,"width":"854","height":"480","autoplay":0},"settings_summary":["Embedded Video (Responsive)."]}

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/looking-after-diabetes/complications/retinopathy
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Diabetic retinopathy — diabetes and eye problems"
  Section: "Preventing diabetic retinopathy"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: According to the NHS, on the topic of "diagnosis criteria"

Answer:
A diagnosis of PCOS can usually be made if other rare causes of the same symptoms have been ruled out and you meet at least 2 of the following 3 criteria:

you have irregular periods or infrequent periods – this indicates that your ovaries do not regularly release eggs (ovulate) blood tests showing you have high levels of "male hormones", such as testosterone (or sometimes just the signs of excess male hormones, even if the blood test is normal) scans showing you have polycystic ovaries

As only 2 of these need to be present to diagnose PCOS, you will not necessarily need to have an ultrasound scan before the condition can be confirmed.

— Source: www.nhs.uk/conditions/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos/diagnosis/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS)
  Page: "Diagnosis - Polycystic ovary syndrome"
  Section: "Diagnosis criteria"
  License: NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


Differences between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus

Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content

Question: According to Diabetes UK, on the topic of "differences between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus"

Answer:
A doctor might use the term ‘Diabetes mellitus’ to distinguish it from ‘Diabetes insipidus’, which is an unrelated and rare condition that causes you to pee a lot and feel thirsty.

Although it shares these symptoms with diabetes mellitus, it’s important to note that they are two separate conditions.

While diabetes mellitus is caused by your body being unable to produce the insulin it needs, diabetes insipidus is a disease where kidneys are unable to conserve water. Diabetes insipidus does not affect your blood sugar levels.

The scientific names for the different conditions demonstrate this key difference: ‘mellitus’ is a Latin word that means sweet, as the urine of someone with diabetes has a sweet smell. In contrast, the word ‘insipidus’ means flavourless, as the person’s urine is colourless and odourless.

You can read more about diabetes insipidus on the NHS website .

— Source: www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/types-of-diabetes/diabetes-mellitus
  Publisher: Diabetes UK
  Page: "Diabetes mellitus"
  Section: "Differences between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus"
  License: Diabetes UK, registered charity, patient education content
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.


NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)

Question: According to the NHS, on the topic of "medical reasons"

Answer:
In some cases, underlying medical conditions may contribute to weight gain. These include:

an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism) – where your thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones Cushing's syndrome – a rare disorder that causes the over-production of steroid hormones

However, if conditions such as these are properly diagnosed and treated, they should pose less of a barrier to weight loss.

Certain medicines, including some steroids , medicines for epilepsy and diabetes , and some medicines used to treat mental illness – including some antidepressants and medicines for schizophrenia – can contribute to weight gain.

Weight gain can sometimes be a side effect of stopping smoking .

— Source: www.nhs.uk/conditions/obesity/causes/
  Publisher: UK National Health Service (NHS)
  Page: "Causes - Obesity"
  Section: "Medical reasons"
  License: NHS website content, Open Government Licence v3.0 (Crown copyright)
  Retrieved: 2026-05-14

Note: This is public-health information from an authoritative international body. It reflects population-level guidance, not individualized medical advice. For decisions about your own health, please discuss with your healthcare provider.